Concept Review Continued What is a Molecular Orbital

2.2: Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory (Review)

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182833

Learning Objective

• write and interpret molecular orbital (MO) diagrams

Overview

Molecular orbital (MO) theory describes the behavior of electrons in a molecule in terms of combinations of the atomic wavefunctions. The resulting molecular orbitals may extend over all the atoms in the molecule. Bonding molecular orbitals are formed by in-phase combinations of atomic wavefunctions, and electrons in these orbitals stabilize a molecule. Antibonding molecular orbitals result from out-of-phase combinations and electrons in these orbitals make a molecule less stable.

Molecular orbital theory describes the distribution of electrons in molecules in much the same way that the distribution of electrons in atoms is described using atomic orbitals. Using quantum mechanics, the behavior of an electron in a molecule is still described by a wave function, Ψ, analogous to the behavior in an atom. Just like electrons around isolated atoms, electrons around atoms in molecules are limited to discrete (quantized) energies. The region of space in which a valence electron in a molecule is likely to be found is called a molecular orbital (Ψ ²). Like an atomic orbital, a molecular orbital is full when it contains two electrons with opposite spin.

We will consider the molecular orbitals in molecules composed of two identical atoms (H₂ or Cl₂, for example). Such molecules are called homonuclear diatomic molecules. In these diatomic molecules, several types of molecular orbitals occur.

The mathematical process of combining atomic orbitals to generate molecular orbitals is called the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO). The wave function describes the wavelike properties of an electron. Molecular orbitals are combinations of atomic orbital wave functions. Combining waves can lead to constructive interference, in which peaks line up with peaks, or destructive interference, in which peaks line up with troughs (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). In orbitals, the waves are three dimensional, and they combine with in-phase waves producing regions with a higher probability of electron density and out-of-phase waves producing nodes, or regions of no electron density.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): (a) When in-phase waves combine, constructive interference produces a wave with greater amplitude. (b) When out-of-phase waves combine, destructive interference produces a wave with less (or no) amplitude.

There are two types of molecular orbitals that can form from the overlap of two atomic s orbitals on adjacent atoms. The two types are illustrated in Figure 8.4.3. The in-phase combination produces a lower energy σ _s molecular orbital (read as "sigma-s") in which most of the electron density is directly between the nuclei. The out-of-phase addition (which can also be thought of as subtracting the wave functions) produces a higher energy \(σ^∗_s\) molecular orbital (read as "sigma-s-star") molecular orbital in which there is a node between the nuclei. The asterisk signifies that the orbital is an antibonding orbital. Electrons in a σ _s orbital are attracted by both nuclei at the same time and are more stable (of lower energy) than they would be in the isolated atoms. Adding electrons to these orbitals creates a force that holds the two nuclei together, so we call these orbitals bonding orbitals. Electrons in the \(σ^∗_s\) orbitals are located well away from the region between the two nuclei. The attractive force between the nuclei and these electrons pulls the two nuclei apart. Hence, these orbitals are called antibonding orbitals. Electrons fill the lower-energy bonding orbital before the higher-energy antibonding orbital, just as they fill lower-energy atomic orbitals before they fill higher-energy atomic orbitals.

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Sigma (σ) and sigma-star (σ*) molecular orbitals are formed by the combination of two s atomic orbitals. The plus (+) signs indicate the locations of nuclei.

In p orbitals, the wave function gives rise to two lobes with opposite phases, analogous to how a two-dimensional wave has both parts above and below the average. We indicate the phases by shading the orbital lobes different colors. When orbital lobes of the same phase overlap, constructive wave interference increases the electron density. When regions of opposite phase overlap, the destructive wave interference decreases electron density and creates nodes. When p orbitals overlap end to end, they create σ and σ* orbitals (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). If two atoms are located along the x-axis in a Cartesian coordinate system, the two p_x orbitals overlap end to end and form σ _px (bonding) and \(σ^∗_{px}\) (antibonding) (read as "sigma-p-x" and "sigma-p-x star," respectively). Just as with s-orbital overlap, the asterisk indicates the orbital with a node between the nuclei, which is a higher-energy, antibonding orbital.

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Combining wave functions of two p atomic orbitals along the internuclear axis creates two molecular orbitals, σ _p and \(σ^∗_p\).

The side-by-side overlap of two p orbitals gives rise to a pi (π) bonding molecular orbital and a π* antibonding molecular orbital, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\). In valence bond theory, we describe π bonds as containing a nodal plane containing the internuclear axis and perpendicular to the lobes of the p orbitals, with electron density on either side of the node. In molecular orbital theory, we describe the π orbital by this same shape, and a π bond exists when this orbital contains electrons. Electrons in this orbital interact with both nuclei and help hold the two atoms together, making it a bonding orbital. For the out-of-phase combination, there are two nodal planes created, one along the internuclear axis and a perpendicular one between the nuclei.

Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): Side-by-side overlap of each two p orbitals results in the formation of two π molecular orbitals. Combining the out-of-phase orbitals results in an antibonding molecular orbital with two nodes. One contains the internuclear axis, and one is perpendicular to the axis. Combining the in-phase orbitals results in a bonding orbital. There is a node (blue plane) containing the internuclear axis with the two lobes of the orbital located above and below this node.

In the molecular orbitals of diatomic molecules, each atom also has two sets of p orbitals oriented side by side (p_y and p_z ), so these four atomic orbitals combine pairwise to create two π orbitals and two π* orbitals. The π _py and \(π^∗_{py}\) orbitals are oriented at right angles to the π _pz and \(π^∗_{pz}\) orbitals. Except for their orientation, the π _py and π _pz orbitals are identical and have the same energy; they are degenerate orbitals. The \(π^∗_{py}\) and \(π^∗_{pz}\) antibonding orbitals are also degenerate and identical except for their orientation. A total of six molecular orbitals results from the combination of the six atomic p orbitals in two atoms: σ _px and \(σ^∗_{px}\), π _py and \(π^∗_{py}\), π _pz and \(π^∗_{pz}\).

Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Molecular Orbitals Predict what type (if any) of molecular orbital would result from adding the wave functions so each pair of orbitals shown overlap. The orbitals are all similar in energy.

Solution

1. This is an in-phase combination, resulting in a σ_3p orbital
2. This will not result in a new orbital because the in-phase component (bottom) and out-of-phase component (top) cancel out. Only orbitals with the correct alignment can combine.
3. This is an out-of-phase combination, resulting in a \(π^∗_{3p}\) orbital.

Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Label the molecular orbital shown as σ or π, bonding or antibonding and indicate where the node occurs.

Answer

The orbital is located along the internuclear axis, so it is a σ orbital. There is a node bisecting the internuclear axis, so it is an antibonding orbital.

Molecular Orbital Energy Diagrams

The relative energy levels of atomic and molecular orbitals are typically shown in a molecular orbital diagram (Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)). For a diatomic molecule, the atomic orbitals of one atom are shown on the left, and those of the other atom are shown on the right. Each horizontal line represents one orbital that can hold two electrons. The molecular orbitals formed by the combination of the atomic orbitals are shown in the center. Dashed lines show which of the atomic orbitals combine to form the molecular orbitals. For each pair of atomic orbitals that combine, one lower-energy (bonding) molecular orbital and one higher-energy (antibonding) orbital result. Thus we can see that combining the six 2p atomic orbitals results in three bonding orbitals (one σ and two π) and three antibonding orbitals (one σ* and two π*).

Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\): This is the molecular orbital diagram for the homonuclear diatomic \(\ce{Be2+}\), showing the molecular orbitals of the valence shell only. The molecular orbitals are filled in the same manner as atomic orbitals, using the Aufbau principle and Hund's rule.

We predict the distribution of electrons in these molecular orbitals by filling the orbitals in the same way that we fill atomic orbitals, by the Aufbau principle. Lower-energy orbitals fill first, electrons spread out among degenerate orbitals before pairing, and each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons with opposite spins (Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)). Just as we write electron configurations for atoms, we can write the molecular electronic configuration by listing the orbitals with superscripts indicating the number of electrons present. For clarity, we place parentheses around molecular orbitals with the same energy. In this case, each orbital is at a different energy, so parentheses separate each orbital. Thus we would expect a diatomic molecule or ion containing seven electrons (such as \(\ce{Be2+}\)) would have the molecular electron configuration \((σ_{1s})^2(σ^∗_{1s})^2(σ_{2s})^2(σ^∗_{2s})^1\). It is common to omit the core electrons from molecular orbital diagrams and configurations and include only the valence electrons.

Bond Order

The filled molecular orbital diagram shows the number of electrons in both bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals. The net contribution of the electrons to the bond strength of a molecule is identified by determining the bond order that results from the filling of the molecular orbitals by electrons.

When using Lewis structures to describe the distribution of electrons in molecules, we define bond order as the number of bonding pairs of electrons between two atoms. Thus a single bond has a bond order of 1, a double bond has a bond order of 2, and a triple bond has a bond order of 3. We define bond order differently when we use the molecular orbital description of the distribution of electrons, but the resulting bond order is usually the same. The MO technique is more accurate and can handle cases when the Lewis structure method fails, but both methods describe the same phenomenon.

In the molecular orbital model, an electron contributes to a bonding interaction if it occupies a bonding orbital and it contributes to an antibonding interaction if it occupies an antibonding orbital. The bond order is calculated by subtracting the destabilizing (antibonding) electrons from the stabilizing (bonding) electrons. Since a bond consists of two electrons, we divide by two to get the bond order. We can determine bond order with the following equation:

\[\textrm{bond order}=\dfrac{(\textrm{number of bonding electrons})−(\textrm{number of antibonding electrons})}{2}\]

The order of a covalent bond is a guide to its strength; a bond between two given atoms becomes stronger as the bond order increases. If the distribution of electrons in the molecular orbitals between two atoms is such that the resulting bond would have a bond order of zero, a stable bond does not form. We next look at some specific examples of MO diagrams and bond orders.

Bonding in Diatomic Molecules

A dihydrogen molecule (H₂) forms from two hydrogen atoms. When the atomic orbitals of the two atoms combine, the electrons occupy the molecular orbital of lowest energy, the σ_1s bonding orbital. A dihydrogen molecule, H₂, readily forms because the energy of a H₂ molecule is lower than that of two H atoms. The σ_1s orbital that contains both electrons is lower in energy than either of the two 1s atomic orbitals.

A molecular orbital can hold two electrons, so both electrons in the H₂ molecule are in the σ_1s bonding orbital; the electron configuration is \((σ_{1s})^2\). We represent this configuration by a molecular orbital energy diagram (Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\)) in which a single upward arrow indicates one electron in an orbital, and two (upward and downward) arrows indicate two electrons of opposite spin.

Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\): The molecular orbital energy diagram predicts that H₂ will be a stable molecule with lower energy than the separated atoms.

A dihydrogen molecule contains two bonding electrons and no antibonding electrons so we have

\[\ce{bond\: order\: in\: H2}=\dfrac{(2−0)}{2}=1\]

Because the bond order for the H–H bond is equal to 1, the bond is a single bond.

A helium atom has two electrons, both of which are in its 1s orbital. Two helium atoms do not combine to form a dihelium molecule, He₂, with four electrons, because the stabilizing effect of the two electrons in the lower-energy bonding orbital would be offset by the destabilizing effect of the two electrons in the higher-energy antibonding molecular orbital. We would write the hypothetical electron configuration of He₂ as \((σ_{1s})^2(σ^∗_{1s})^2\) as in Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\) . The net energy change would be zero, so there is no driving force for helium atoms to form the diatomic molecule. In fact, helium exists as discrete atoms rather than as diatomic molecules. The bond order in a hypothetical dihelium molecule would be zero.

\[\ce{bond\: order\: in\: He2}=\dfrac{(2−2)}{2}=0\]

A bond order of zero indicates that no bond is formed between two atoms.

Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\): The molecular orbital energy diagram predicts that He₂ will not be a stable molecule, since it has equal numbers of bonding and antibonding

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Source: https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Nassau_Community_College/Organic_Chemistry_I_and_II/02:_Structure_and_Properties_of_Organic_Molecules/2.02:_Molecular_Orbital_%28MO%29_Theory_%28Review%29

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