1. What Are Two (2) Benefits or More of Teaching Hearing Babies Sign Language?
A person's second linguistic communication, or L2, is a language that is not the native language (first language or L1) of the speaker, but is learned later (unremarkably every bit a foreign linguistic communication, but it can exist some other language used in the speaker'south dwelling state). A speaker's dominant language, which is the language a speaker uses most or is near comfortable with, is not necessarily the speaker'south first linguistic communication. The second language tin too be the dominant one. For case, the Canadian census defines get-go linguistic communication for its purposes as "the first language learned in babyhood and still spoken", recognizing that for some, the earliest language may be lost, a process known equally language attrition. This tin can happen when young children movement to a new language surroundings.
Second-language conquering [edit]
The distinction between acquiring and learning was made by Stephen Krashen (1982) as role of his Monitor Theory. According to Krashen, the acquisition of a linguistic communication is a natural procedure; whereas learning a language is a conscious i. In the former, the student needs to partake in natural chatty situations. In the latter, error correction is present, equally is the study of grammatical rules isolated from natural language. Not all educators in 2d linguistic communication concord to this distinction; all the same, the study of how a 2nd language is learned/acquired is referred to as second-language acquisition (SLA).
Research in SLA "...focuses on the developing knowledge and use of a language by children and adults who already know at least one other language... [and] a cognition of second-linguistic communication acquisition may assistance educational policy makers set more than realistic goals for programmes for both foreign language courses and the learning of the bulk language past minority language children and adults." (Spada & Lightbown, p. 115).
SLA has been influenced by both linguistic and psychological theories. I of the dominant linguistic theories hypothesizes that a device or module of sorts in the brain contains innate noesis. Many psychological theories, on the other hand, hypothesize that cognitive mechanisms, responsible for much of human being learning, process linguistic communication.
Other dominant theories and points of research include 2nd language conquering studies (which examine if L1 findings can be transferred to L2 learning), verbal behaviour (the view that constructed linguistic stimuli can create a desired speech response), morpheme studies, behaviourism, fault assay, stages and club of acquisition, structuralism (arroyo that looks at how the basic units of language relate to each other co-ordinate to their mutual characteristics), 1st language acquisition studies, contrastive analysis (approach where languages are examined in terms of differences and similarities) and inter-language (which describes the L2 learner'due south linguistic communication as a dominion-governed, dynamic system) (Mitchell, Myles, 2004).
These theories have all influenced second-language pedagogy and teaching. In that location are many dissimilar methods of second-linguistic communication teaching, many of which stem direct from a particular theory. Mutual methods are the grammar-translation method, the directly method, the audio-lingual method (conspicuously influenced by audio-lingual enquiry and the behaviourist arroyo), the Silent Way, Suggestopedia, community language learning, the Total Physical Response method, and the communicative approach (highly influenced by Krashen's theories) (Doggett, 1994). Some of these approaches are more popular than others, and are viewed to be more than constructive. Almost language teachers practise non use one singular fashion, but will use a mix in their instruction. This provides a more counterbalanced approach to teaching and helps students of a variety of learning styles succeed.
Effect of historic period [edit]
The defining divergence betwixt a first language (L1) and a second linguistic communication (L2) is the age the person learned the language. For example, linguist Eric Lenneberg used second language to mean a language consciously acquired or used by its speaker after puberty. In most cases, people never attain the aforementioned level of fluency and comprehension in their second languages as in their first language. These views are closely associated with the critical period hypothesis.[1] [ii] [3] [4]
In acquiring an L2, Hyltenstam (1992) constitute that around the historic period of six or seven seemed to be a cutting-off point for bilinguals to accomplish native-like proficiency. After that age, L2 learners could go almost-native-like-ness only their linguistic communication would, while consisting of few bodily errors, have enough errors to set them apart from the L1 group. The inability of some subjects to attain native-like proficiency must be seen in relation to the historic period of onset (AO). Afterward, Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson (2003) modified their age cutting-offs to argue that after childhood, in general, information technology becomes more and more than hard to acquire native-similar-ness, but that there is no cut-off point in particular.
Equally we are learning more and more about the encephalon, there is a hypothesis that when a kid is going through puberty, that is the time that accents start. Earlier a kid goes through puberty, the chemical processes in the brain are more geared towards language and social advice. Whereas after puberty, the ability for learning a language without an accent has been rerouted to function in another area of the brain—most likely in the frontal lobe surface area promoting cognitive functions, or in the neural system of hormone allocated for reproduction and sexual organ growth.
Equally far as the human relationship between historic period and eventual attainment in SLA is concerned, Krashen, Long, and Scarcella, say that people who see foreign language in early age, begin natural exposure to 2d languages and obtain improve proficiency than those who learn the second language as an developed. Withal, when it comes to the relationship between age and rate SLA, "Adults proceed through early stages of syntactic and morphological evolution faster than children (where time and exposure are held constant)" (Krashen, Long, Scarcella 573). Too, "older children acquire faster than younger children do (again, in early stages of morphological and syntactic development where fourth dimension and exposure are held constant)" (573). In other words, adults and older children are fast learners when it comes to the initial stage of foreign language education.
Gauthier and Genesee (2011) have done a enquiry which mainly focuses on the 2nd language acquisition of internationally adopted children and results show that early experiences of one language of children tin can touch their ability to acquire a second language, and usually children learn their 2nd language slower and weaker even during the disquisitional period.[5]
As for the fluency, it is better to do foreign language educational activity at an early historic period, just being exposed to a foreign language since an early age causes a "weak identification" (Billiet, Maddens and Beerten 241). Such upshot leads to a "double sense of national belonging," that makes one not sure of where he or she belongs to because according to Brian A. Jacob, multicultural education affects students' "relations, attitudes, and behaviors" (Jacob 364). And as children learn more and more strange languages, children starting time to conform, and go absorbed into the foreign culture that they "undertake to depict themselves in means that appoint with representations others have fabricated" (Pratt 35). Due to such factors, learning strange languages at an early age may incur ane'due south perspective of his or her native country.[6]
Similarities and differences between learned and native proficiency [edit]
Speed [edit]
Acquiring a 2nd language can be a lifelong learning procedure for many. Despite persistent efforts, most learners of a 2d language volition never become fully native-similar in it, although with practice considerable fluency tin be achieved.[vii] All the same, children past around the age of 5 have more or less mastered their first language with the exception of vocabulary and a few grammatical structures, and the process is relatively very fast because linguistic communication is a very complex skill. Moreover, if children start to larn a second language when they are 7 years old or younger, they will also be fully fluent with their 2nd language in a faster speed comparing to the speed of learning by adults who kickoff to learn a 2d language after in their life.[8]
Correction [edit]
In the first linguistic communication, children do not respond to systematic correction. Furthermore, children who have express input even so acquire the first language, which is a pregnant deviation between input and output. Children are exposed to a linguistic communication surround of errors and lack of correction but they finish upward having the capacity to figure out the grammatical rules. Error correction does non seem to take a direct influence on learning a second language. Education may touch the rate of learning, only the stages remain the same. Adolescents and adults who know the dominion are faster than those who do not.
In the learning of a 2nd language the correction of errors remains a controversial topic with many differing schools of thought. Throughout the last century much advocacy has been made in enquiry on the correction of students' errors. In the 1950s and 60s, the viewpoint of the day was that all errors must be corrected at all costs. Footling thought went to students' feelings or self-esteem in regards to this constant correction (Russell, 2009).
In the 1970s, Dulay and Burt's studies showed that learners acquire grammar forms and structures in a pre-determined, inalterable social club, and that teaching or correcting styles would not change this (Russell, 2009).
In this same decade Terrell (1977) did studies that showed that there were more factors to exist considered in the classroom than the cognitive processing of the students (Russell, 2009). He contested that the affective side of students and their self-esteem were as important to the educational activity process (Russell, 2009).
A few years afterwards in the 1980s, the strict grammer and cosmetic approach of the 1950s became obsolete. Researchers asserted that correction was often unnecessary and that instead of furthering students' learning it was hindering them (Russell, 2009). The chief business organization at this time was relieving student stress and creating a warm environment for them. Stephen Krashen was a big proponent in this hands-off arroyo to error correction (Russell, 2009).
The 1990s brought dorsum the familiar idea that explicit grammar didactics and error correction was indeed useful for the SLA process. At this fourth dimension, more research started to be undertaken to determine exactly which kinds of corrections are the near useful for students. In 1998, Lyster ended that "recasts" (when the teacher repeats a educatee's incorrect utterance with the right version) are not always the most useful because students exercise not find the correction (Russell, 2009). His studies in 2002 showed that students learn meliorate when teachers assistance students recognize and correct their own errors (Russell, 2009). Mackey, Gas and McDonough had similar findings in 2000 and attributed the success of this method to the pupil'south active participation in the cosmetic processes.[nine]
Depth of knowledge [edit]
Co-ordinate to Noam Chomsky, children will bridge the gap between input and output by their innate grammar considering the input (utterances they hear) is so poor only all children cease up having complete noesis of grammar. Chomsky calls it the Poverty of Stimulus. And second language learners tin do this by applying the rules they learn to the sentence-construction, for instance. So learners in both their native and 2d linguistic communication have knowledge that goes beyond what they have received, and so that people tin can make correct utterances (phrases, sentences, questions, etc) that they have never learned or heard earlier.
Emotionality [edit]
Bilingualism has been an advantage to today'southward world and being bilingual gives the opportunity to empathise and communicate with people with different cultural backgrounds. However, a study washed by Optiz and Degner in 2012 shows that sequential bilinguals (i.e. learn their L2 after L1) oftentimes relate themselves to the emotions more when they perceive these emotions past their first linguistic communication/native language/L1, simply experience less emotional when past their second language even though they know the meaning of words clearly.[10] The emotional stardom between L1 and L2 indicates that the "effective valence" of words is candy less immediate in L2 because of the delayed vocabulary/lexical access to these two languages.
Success [edit]
Success in language learning can exist measured in 2 ways: likelihood and quality. Offset language learners volition be successful in both measurements. It is inevitable that all people will larn a starting time language and with few exceptions, they will be fully successful. For second linguistic communication learners, success is non guaranteed. For i, learners may become fossilized or stuck equally it were with ungrammatical items. (Fossilization occurs when language errors go a permanent feature. See Canale & Swain [11](1980), Johnson (1992), Selinker (1972), and Selinker and Lamendella (1978).) The difference between learners may be meaning. As noted elsewhere, L2 learners rarely achieve complete native-similar control of the 2nd language.
For L2 pronunciation, at that place are 2 principles that accept been put forth by Levis (2005). The get-go is nativeness which means the speaker's power to approximately reach the speaking design of the 2nd language of speakers; and the second, understanding, refers to the speaker'southward ability to make themselves understood.[12]
| L2 | L1 | |
|---|---|---|
| Speed | slower than acquisition of L1 | acquisition is rapid |
| Stages | systematic stages of development | systematic stages of development |
| Error correction | non straight influential | not involved |
| Depth of knowledge | beyond the level of input | beyond the level of input |
| Emotionality | less emotional when perceiving words by L2 | more than emotional when perceiving words by L1 |
| Success (i) | not inevitable (possible fossilization*) | inevitable |
| Success (two) | rarely fully successful (if learning starts after Critical Period) | successful |
Being successful in learning a second linguistic communication is oft found to be challenging for some individuals. Research has been washed to expect into why some students are more successful than others. Stern (1975), Rubin (1975) and Reiss (1985) are merely a few of the researchers who have dedicated fourth dimension to this subject. They accept worked to determine what qualities make a "proficient language learner" (Mollica, Neussel, 1997). Some of their common findings are that a skilful linguistic communication learner uses positive learning strategies, is an active learner who is constantly searching for meaning. Too a good language learner demonstrates a willingness to practice and use the language in real communication. He too monitors himself and his learning, has a strong bulldoze to communicate, and has a good ear and proficient listening skills (Mollica, Neussel, 1997).
Özgür and Griffiths have designed an experiment in 2013 about the relationship between dissimilar motivations and second language conquering.[thirteen] They looked at four types of motivations—intrinsic (inner feelings of learner), extrinsic (reward from outside), integrative (attitude towards learning), and instrumental (practical needs). According to the exam results, the intrinsic office has been the master motivation for these educatee who learn English as their 2d linguistic communication. Notwithstanding, students report themselves being strongly instrumentally motivated. In conclusion, learning a 2nd language and beingness successful depend on every individual.
Foreign language [edit]
A German student learning French. English (1.5 billion learners), French (82 million learners) and Chinese (xxx million learners) are the three most ordinarily studied foreign languages.[xiv]
In pedagogy and sociolinguistics, a distinction is fabricated between second language and foreign language, the latter is being learned for use in an area where that language is originally from another country and not spoken in the native country of the speakers. And in other words, strange language is used from the perspective of countries; the second linguistic communication is used from the perspective of individuals.
For case, English in countries such equally Bharat, Islamic republic of pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, the Philippines, the Nordic countries and holland is considered a 2nd language by many of its speakers, because they acquire information technology young and use information technology regularly; indeed in parts of southern Asia it is the official language of the courts, regime and business. The aforementioned can be said for French in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, although French is not an official language in any of them. In practice, French is widely used in a multifariousness of contexts in these countries, and signs are ordinarily printed in both Arabic and French. A similar phenomenon exists in mail-Soviet states such as Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan, where Russian can be considered a 2nd language, and there are large Russophone communities.
However, unlike in Hong Kong, English is considered a foreign linguistic communication in China due to the lack of opportunities for use, such every bit historical links, media, conversation between people, and common vocabulary. Likewise, French would be considered a foreign language in Romania and Moldova, fifty-fifty though both French and Romanaian are Romance languages, Romania's historical links to France, and all being members of la Francophonie.
Benefits of bilingualism [edit]
Psychological studies have constitute that speaking two or more than languages is beneficial for people's cognitive process and the differences between brains of bilinguals and single language speakers unremarkably provides some mental benefits, according to an article in the Daily Telegraph in 2013.[15] The benefits include simply are not limited to these:
- Becoming smarter
- Speaking a second language keeps the functions of the brain intact by thinking and using the different language systems.
- Building multitasking skills
- According to a report from the Pennsylvania State Academy, "juggling language can make meliorate brains".[xvi] Because multilingual people are usually skillful at switching between different linguistic communication systems, they can be good multitaskers besides.
- Improving memory
- The vocabulary capacity for a high school graduate student is nigh 45000 words, according to Nagy and Anderson (1984),[17] and being a bilingual has shown to double this number because learning a linguistic communication adds to a person'south vocabulary.
- Improved cognitive abilities
- A study focusing on divergent thinking determined that 2nd language learners score significantly higher than monolingual students when presented with figural tasks. 2d language learning appears, therefore, not merely to provide children with the ability to depart from the traditional approaches to a problem, but besides to supply them with possible rich resources for new and different ideas.[18]
Data for further information [edit]
| | This department appears to contradict itselfon the number of speakers. (Dec 2021) |
Weber'south report [edit]
George H. J. Weber, a Swiss businessman and independent scholar, founder of the Andaman Clan and creator of the encyclopedic andaman.org Spider web site, made a study in December 1997 about the number of secondary speakers of the world's leading languages.[xix] [xx] Weber used the Fischer Weltalmanach of 1986 as his primary and only source[21] for the L2-speakers data, in preparing the information in the post-obit tabular array. These numbers are here compared with those referred to by Ethnologue, a popular source in the linguistics field. Run across below Table 1.
| Language | L2 speakers (Weltalmanach 1986) | L2 speakers (Ethnologue.com 2013) |
|---|---|---|
| 1. English | 190 million | 979 million |
| two. Hindi-Urdu | 150 meg | >500 million |
| 3. Russian | 125 million | 110 1000000 |
| four. French | 270 1000000 | 280 million |
| 5. Portuguese | 28 million | xv million |
| vi. Arabic | 21 one thousand thousand | 246 million |
| 7. Mandarin | 20 million | 178 million |
| eight. Spanish | 20 meg | 71 million |
| 9. German | lxxx million | 88 million |
| 10. Japanese | 8 million | ane million |
Later information [edit]
Collecting the number of second linguistic communication speakers of every language is extremely difficult and even the best estimates contain guess work. The data below are from ethnologue.com as of June 2013.[22] [ not specific enough to verify ]
| Language | Speakers (million) |
|---|---|
| Standard mandarin | 918 |
| Spanish | 476 |
| English language | 335 |
| Hindi-Urdu | 330 |
| Bengali | 230 |
| Standard arabic | 223 |
| Portuguese | 202 |
| Russian | 162 |
| Japanese | 122 |
| Javanese | 84.3 |
| Language | speakers (million) |
|---|---|
| English | 1132 |
| Mandarin | 1116 |
| Hindi-Urdu | 900 |
| Spanish | 550 |
| French | 360 |
| Russian/Belorussian | 320 |
| Arabic | 250 |
| Bengali/Sylhetti | 250 |
| Malay/Indonesian | 200 |
| Portuguese | 200 |
| Japanese | 130 |
See also [edit]
- Foreign language writing aid
- Strange linguistic communication reading aid
- Computer-assisted linguistic communication learning
- Diglossia
- Language education
Notes and references [edit]
- ^ Pratt, Mary (1991). "Arts of the Contact Zone". Profession: 33–40.
- ^ Beerten, Roeland; Billiet, Jaak; Bart Maddens (2003). "National Identity and Attitude Toward Foreigners in a Multinational State: A Replication". International Lodge of Political Psychology. 2. 24.
- ^ Jacob, Brian (Aug 1995). "Defining Culture in a Multicultural Environs: An Ethnography of Heritage Loftier Schoolhouse". American Journal of Teaching. 4. 103 (4): 339–376. doi:x.1086/444107.
- ^ Scarcella, Robin; Krashen, Stephen D.; Michael A. Long (Dec 1979). "Historic period, Rate and Eventual Attainment in 2d Linguistic communication Acquisition". TESOL Quarterly. 13 (4): 573–582. doi:10.2307/3586451. JSTOR 3586451.
- ^ Gauthier, Karine; Genesee, Fred (March 2011). "Language Development in Internationally Adopted Children: A Special Case of Early on 2nd Linguistic communication Learning". Child Evolution. 82 (iii): 887–901. doi:ten.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01578.x. PMID 21413938. S2CID 8903620.
- ^ Pratt, Mary (1991). "Arts of the Contact Zone". Profession: 33–40.
- ^ "Good Accents". globe1234.com. Retrieved 2013-08-23 .
- ^ Johnson, Jacqueline; Newport, Elissa (January 1989). "Critical period effects in 2nd language learning: The influence of maturational country on the acquisition of English language as a second language". Cognitive Psychology. 21 (1): 60–99. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(89)90003-0. PMID 2920538. S2CID 15842890.
- ^ Russell, Victoria (2009). "Corrective feedback, over a decade of research since Lyster and Ranta (1997): Where practice nosotros stand up today?" (PDF). Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching. half-dozen (1): 21–31. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
- ^ Opitz, Bertram; Degner, Juliane (July 2012). "Emotionality in a second language: It'southward a matter of time" (PDF). Neuropsychologia. 50 (viii): 1961–1967. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.04.021. PMID 22569217. S2CID 1625668.
- ^ Canale, M. "Canale Thou".
- ^ Levis, John (Fall 2005). "Changing Contexts and Shifting Paradigms in Pronunciation Didactics". TESOL Quarterly. 39 (three): 369–377. CiteSeerX10.1.1.466.9352. doi:10.2307/3588485. JSTOR 3588485.
- ^ Özgür, Burcu; Griffiths, Carol (25 January 2013). "Second Language Motivation". Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 70: 1109–1114. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.01.165.
- ^ Rick Noack and Lazaro Gamio, "The world's languages, in vii maps and charts", The Washington Post, 23 April 2015 (folio visited on 9 June 2015).
- ^ Merritt, Anne (2013-06-19). "Why learn a foreign language? Benefits of bilingualism". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 19 Jun 2013.
- ^ "Juggling languages can build better brains". PennState . Retrieved February 18, 2011.
- ^ Nagy, William; Anderson, Richard (Spring 1984). "How Many Words are In that location in Printed School English?". Reading Research Quarterly. 19 (three): 304–330. doi:10.2307/747823. JSTOR 747823.
- ^ Landry, Richard G. (Oct 1973). "The Enhancement of Figural Creativity through 2d Language Learning at the Elementary School Level". Foreign Language Register. vii (i): 111–115. doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.1973.tb00073.x.
- ^ The World's Most Widely Spoken Languages Archived 2013-12-31 at the Wayback Machine (reference for unabridged table)
- ^ The World's 10 most influential Languages Archived 2013-05-07 at the Wayback Machine (reference for unabridged table)
- ^ Fig 6. [number of secondary speakers] is based on a table given in the Fischer Weltalamanach [sic] 1986, p. 910. Full article Archived 2013-05-07 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "The most spoken languages". Ethnologue . Retrieved 2013-06-thirty .
Further reading [edit]
- Billiet, Jaak, Bart Maddens, and Roeland Beerten. "National Identity and Attitude Toward Foreigners in a Multinational Land: A Replication". Vol. 24. International Order of Political Psychology, 2003. Ser. 2. viii October. 2011
- Brian A. Jacob. "Defining Civilization in a Multicultural Environment: An Ethnography of Heritage High School". American Journal of Teaching, Vol. 103, No. iv (Aug., 1995) 339-376. University of Chicago Printing
- Camm, Howard. 'Commutazione di codice, la parità eastward l'equivalenza nelle metodologie di interpretazione.' Roma, Marzo 2017.
- Doughty, C. J., & Long, M. H. (Eds.). (2012). The handbook of second language acquisition. Madden, MA: Blackwell.
- Doggett, One thousand (1994). "Eight Approaches to Language Teaching". Mosaic. 27 (two): eight–12.
- Krashen, Stephen D.; Long, Michael A.; Scarcella, Robin C. (1979). "Age, Rate and Eventual Attainment in Second Linguistic communication Acquisition". TESOL Quarterly. 13 (4): 573–582. doi:10.2307/3586451. JSTOR 3586451.
- Mitchell, R and Myles, F. (2004) Second Language Learning Theories, second edition. London: Arnold; New York, distributed by Oxford University Press (chapter ii)
- Mollica, A.; Neussel, F. (1997). "The skilful language learner and the good language teacher: A review of the literature and classroom applications". Mosaic. four (iii): one–16.
- Pratt, Mary Louise. "Arts of the Contact Zone." Profession. Modern Linguistic communication Association, 1991, 33-xl. Retrieved eleven Aug. 2018.
- Russell, V (2009). "Corrective feedback, over a decade of inquiry since Lyster and Ranta (1997) Where do we stand today?". Electronic Journal of Strange Language Pedagogy. half dozen (1): 21–31.
1. What Are Two (2) Benefits or More of Teaching Hearing Babies Sign Language?
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_language
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