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Canvas Global Gallery Southern Hawker Dragonfly Closeup on Stem New Mexico Wall Art

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Predatory winged insects

Dragonfly

Temporal range: 196–0 Ma

PreꞒ

Ꞓ

O

S

D

C

P

T

J

K

Pg

Due north

Early on Jurassic to Recent
Sympetrum flaveolum - side (aka).jpg
Yellow-winged darter
Sympetrum flaveolum
Scientific classification e
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Social club: Odonata
Suborder: Epiprocta
Infraorder: Anisoptera
Selys, 1854[1]
Families
  • Aeshnoidea
    • Aeshnidae (hawkers or darners)
    • Austropetaliidae
    • Gomphidae (clubtails)
    • Petaluridae (petaltails)
  • Cordulegastroidea
    • Chlorogomphidae
    • Cordulegastridae (spiketails)
    • Neopetaliidae
  • Libelluloidea
    • Corduliidae (emeralds)$
    • Libellulidae (skimmers, etc)
    • Macromiidae (cruisers)
    • Synthemistidae (tigertails)
$ Non a clade

A dragonfly is a flying insect belonging to the order Odonata, infraorder Anisoptera (from Greek ἄνισος anisos, "unequal" and πτερόν pteron, "wing", because the hindwing is broader than the forewing). Adult dragonflies are characterized past a pair of big, multifaceted compound eyes, two pairs of strong, transparent wings, sometimes with coloured patches, and an elongated body. Dragonflies tin be mistaken for the closely related damselflies, which make upwards the other odonatan infraorder (Zygoptera) and are similar in body plan though ordinarily lighter in build; however, the wings of most dragonflies are held flat and away from the body, while damselflies hold their wings folded at balance, along or to a higher place the abdomen. Dragonflies are agile fliers, while damselflies take a weaker, fluttery flight. Many dragonflies take brilliant iridescent or metallic colours produced past structural colouration, making them conspicuous in flight. An adult dragonfly'due south compound eyes accept nearly 24,000 ommatidia each.

Fossils of very large dragonfly-like insects, sometimes called griffinflies, are found from 325 one thousand thousand years ago (Mya) in Upper Carboniferous rocks; these had wingspans upward to about 750 mm (30 in), but were only distant ancestors, non true dragonflies. Nearly 3,000 extant species of true dragonfly are known. Almost are tropical, with fewer species in temperate regions. Loss of wetland habitat threatens dragonfly populations around the world.

Dragonflies are predatory insects, both in their aquatic nymphs stage (besides known every bit naiads) and equally adults. In some species, the nymphal stage lasts for upward to five years, and the adult stage may be equally long as ten weeks, but well-nigh species take an adult lifespan in the gild of v weeks or less, and some survive for simply a few days.[2] They are fast, active fliers capable of highly accurate aerial ambush, sometimes migrating beyond oceans, and often alive near h2o. They have a uniquely complex mode of reproduction involving indirect insemination, delayed fertilization, and sperm contest. During mating, the male grasps the female at the dorsum of the head, and the female person curls her belly nether her trunk to pick up sperm from the male's secondary genitalia at the front of his abdomen, forming the "eye" or "wheel" posture.

Dragonflies are represented in human being civilization on artefacts such as pottery, stone paintings, statues and Fine art Nouveau jewellery. They are used in traditional medicine in Japan and People's republic of china, and defenseless for food in Indonesia. They are symbols of courage, strength, and happiness in Japan, just seen equally sinister in European folklore. Their bright colours and agile flight are admired in the poesy of Lord Tennyson and the prose of H. E. Bates.

Evolution [edit]

Dragonflies and their relatives are similar in structure to an ancient group, meganisoptera, from the 325 Mya Upper Carboniferous of Europe, a group that included the largest insect that e'er lived, Meganeuropsis permiana from the Early Permian, with a wingspan around 750 mm (30 in);[iv]. Known informally equally "griffinflies", their fossil tape ends with the Permian–Triassic extinction event (near 247 Mya). The Protanisoptera, another bequeathed group that lacks sure wing vein characters plant in modernistic Odonata, lived from the Early to Late Permian age until the end Permian event, and are known from fossil wings from electric current-mean solar day United States, Russian federation, and Australia, suggesting they might have been cosmopolitan in distribution. While both of those groups are sometimes referred to every bit "giant dragonflies", in fact true dragonflies/odonata are more than modern insects that had not evolved nonetheless.

Modern dragonflies do retain some traits of their distant predecessors, and are in a grouping known as palaeoptera, ancient-winged. They, like the gigantic pre-dinosaur griffinflies, lack the power to fold their wings upwards confronting their bodies in the way modern insects do, although some evolved their own dissimilar way to exercise so. The forerunners of modern Odonata are included in a clade called the Panodonata, which include the basal Zygoptera (damselflies) and the Anisoptera (truthful dragonflies).[v] Today, some iii,000 species are extant around the world.[vi] [7]

The relationships of anisopteran families are not fully resolved as of 2013, merely all the families are monophyletic except the Corduliidae; the Gomphidae are a sister taxon to all other Anisoptera, the Austropetaliidae are sis to the Aeshnoidea, and the Chlorogomphidae are sis to a clade that includes the Synthemistidae and Libellulidae.[eight] On the cladogram, dashed lines indicate unresolved relationships; English language names are given (in parentheses):

Distribution and diverseness [edit]

Well-nigh 3,012 species of dragonflies were known in 2010; these are classified into 348 genera in 11 families. The distribution of multifariousness inside the biogeographical regions are summarized below (the world numbers are non ordinary totals, as overlaps in species occur).[9]

Family unit Oriental Neotropical Australasian Afrotropical Palaearctic Nearctic Pacific Earth
Aeshnidae 149 129 78 44 58 40 13 456
Austropetaliidae seven 4 11
Petaluridae one 6 1 2 x
Gomphidae 364 277 42 152 127 101 980
Chlorogomphidae 46 v 47
Cordulegastridae 23 ane eighteen 46
Neopetaliidae 1 1
Corduliidae 23 twenty 33 6 eighteen 51 12 154
Libellulidae 192 354 184 251 120 105 31 1037
Macromiidae l two 17 37 7 10 125
Synthemistidae 37 9 46
Incertae sedis 37 24 21 15 2 99

Dragonflies live on every continent except Antarctica. In contrast to the damselflies (Zygoptera), which tend to have restricted distributions, some genera and species are spread across continents. For instance, the blue-eyed darner Rhionaeschna multicolor lives all across Due north America, and in Fundamental America;[10] emperors Anax live throughout the Americas from as far due north as Newfoundland to every bit far south as Bahia Blanca in Argentina,[xi] across Europe to central Asia, N Africa, and the Middle Due east.[12] The globe skimmer Pantala flavescens is probably the near widespread dragonfly species in the world; it is cosmopolitan, occurring on all continents in the warmer regions. Virtually Anisoptera species are tropical, with far fewer species in temperate regions.[13]

Some dragonflies, including libellulids and aeshnids, live in desert pools, for example in the Mojave Desert, where they are active in shade temperatures between eighteen and 45 °C (64 and 113 °F); these insects were able to survive trunk temperatures above the thermal death bespeak of insects of the aforementioned species in cooler places.[14]

Dragonflies live from bounding main level up to the mountains, decreasing in species multifariousness with altitude.[15] Their altitudinal limit is nearly 3700 m, represented past a species of Aeshna in the Pamirs.[16]

Dragonflies become deficient at college latitudes. They are not native to Republic of iceland, just individuals are occasionally swept in by potent winds, including a Hemianax ephippiger native to North Africa, and an unidentified darter species.[17] In Kamchatka, only a few species of dragonfly including the treeline emerald Somatochlora arctica and some aeshnids such as Aeshna subarctica are found, possibly because of the low temperature of the lakes there.[18] The treeline emerald as well lives in northern Alaska, within the Chill Circle, making it the most northerly of all dragonflies.[nineteen]

General description [edit]

Dragonflies (suborder Anisoptera) are heavy-bodied, strong-flying insects that concord their wings horizontally both in flight and at rest. By contrast, damselflies (suborder Zygoptera) accept slender bodies and wing more than weakly; well-nigh species fold their wings over the abdomen when stationary, and the eyes are well separated on the sides of the head.[9] [20]

An adult dragonfly has iii distinct segments, the head, thorax, and abdomen, as in all insects. Information technology has a chitinous exoskeleton of hard plates held together with flexible membranes. The head is big with very brusque antennae. It is dominated by the two compound eyes, which comprehend almost of its surface. The compound optics are made upward of ommatidia, the numbers existence greater in the larger species. Aeshna interrupta has 22650 ommatidia of 2 varying sizes, 4500 beingness large. The facets facing downwards tend to be smaller. Petalura gigantea has 23890 ommatidia of but ane size. These facets provide complete vision in the frontal hemisphere of the dragonfly.[21] The compound eyes meet at the top of the caput (except in the Petaluridae and Gomphidae, equally also in the genus Epiophlebia). Besides, they take three elementary optics or ocelli. The mouthparts are adapted for bitter with a toothed jaw; the flap-similar labrum, at the forepart of the mouth, can be shot speedily forward to take hold of prey.[22] [23] The head has a system for locking information technology in identify that consists of muscles and small hairs on the dorsum of the caput that grip structures on the forepart of the first thoracic segment. This arrester arrangement is unique to the Odonata, and is activated when feeding and during tandem flight.[9]

The thorax consists of three segments equally in all insects. The prothorax is small and is flattened dorsally into a shield-similar disc, which has ii transverse ridges. The mesothorax and metathorax are fused into a rigid, box-similar structure with internal bracing, and provide a robust zipper for the powerful wing muscles inside.[24] The thorax bears two pairs of wings and three pairs of legs. The wings are long, veined, and membranous, narrower at the tip and wider at the base. The hindwings are broader than the forewings and the venation is dissimilar at the base of operations.[25] The veins carry haemolymph, which is analogous to blood in vertebrates, and carries out many similar functions, just which also serves a hydraulic function to expand the body between nymphal stages (instars) and to expand and stiffen the wings after the developed emerges from the final nymphal phase. The leading border of each fly has a node where other veins join the marginal vein, and the wing is able to flex at this indicate. In most large species of dragonflies, the wings of females are shorter and broader than those of males.[23] The legs are rarely used for walking, only are used to catch and hold prey, for perching, and for climbing on plants. Each has 2 short basal joints, two long joints, and a three-jointed foot, armed with a pair of claws. The long leg joints behave rows of spines, and in males, one row of spines on each forepart leg is modified to class an "eyebrush", for cleaning the surface of the compound eye.[24]

The abdomen is long and slender and consists of 10 segments. Iii terminal appendages are on segment ten; a pair of superiors (claspers) and an inferior. The 2nd and tertiary segments are enlarged, and in males, on the underside of the second segment has a crevice, forming the secondary ballocks consisting of the lamina, hamule, genital lobe, and penis. There are remarkable variations in the presence and the form of the penis and the related structures, the flagellum, cornua, and genital lobes. Sperm is produced at the 9th segment, and is transferred to the secondary genitalia prior to mating. The male holds the female behind the head using a pair of claspers on the terminal segment. In females, the genital opening is on the underside of the eighth segment, and is covered past a unproblematic flap (vulvar lamina) or an ovipositor, depending on species and the method of egg-laying. Dragonflies having elementary flaps shed the eggs in water, by and large in flight. Dragonflies having ovipositors employ them to puncture soft tissues of plants and place the eggs singly in each puncture they make.[24] [26] [27] [28]

Dragonfly nymphs vary in form with species, and are loosely classed into claspers, sprawlers, hiders, and burrowers.[9] The offset instar is known every bit a prolarva, a relatively inactive stage from which it apace moults into the more active nymphal form.[29] The full general torso plan is similar to that of an adult, only the nymph lacks wings and reproductive organs. The lower jaw has a huge, extensible labium, armed with hooks and spines, which is used for communicable casualty. This labium is folded under the trunk at rest and struck out at smashing speed by hydraulic pressure created by the abdominal muscles.[nine] Whereas damselfly nymphs have 3 feathery external gills, dragonfly nymphs have internal gills, located around the quaternary and fifth abdominal segments. Water is pumped in and out of the belly through an opening at the tip. The naiads of some clubtails (Gomphidae) that couch into the sediment, have a snorkel-similar tube at the end of the abdomen enabling them to draw in clean water while they are buried in mud. Naiads can forcefully expel a jet of water to propel themselves with great rapidity.[30]

Coloration [edit]

Many adult dragonflies have brilliant iridescent or metallic colours produced by structural colouration, making them conspicuous in flight. Their overall coloration is often a combination of yellow, red, brown, and black pigments, with structural colours. Blues are typically created past microstructures in the cuticle that reflect blue light. Greens often combine a structural blue with a yellow pigment. Freshly emerged adults, known as tenerals, are oftentimes stake, and obtain their typical colours afterward a few days.[25] Some accept their bodies covered with a pale blue, waxy powderiness chosen pruinosity; it wears off when scraped during mating, leaving darker areas.[31]

Male light-green darner, Anax junius has noniridescent structural blueish; the female (beneath) lacks the colour.

Some dragonflies, such equally the green darner, Anax junius, take a noniridescent blue that is produced structurally by scatter from arrays of tiny spheres in the endoplasmic reticulum of epidermal cells underneath the cuticle.[32]

The wings of dragonflies are generally clear, apart from the dark veins and pterostigmata. In the chasers (Libellulidae), however, many genera have areas of colour on the wings: for example, groundlings (Brachythemis) have brown bands on all four wings, while some scarlets (Crocothemis) and dropwings (Trithemis) accept bright orange patches at the wing bases. Some aeshnids such as the brown hawker (Aeshna grandis) have translucent, stake yellow wings.[33]

Dragonfly nymphs are ordinarily a well-camouflaged alloy of wearisome brownish, green, and grayness.[30]

Biology [edit]

Ecology [edit]

Dragonflies and damselflies are predatory both in the aquatic nymphal and adult stages. Nymphs feed on a range of freshwater invertebrates and larger ones can prey on tadpoles and small fish.[34] Adults capture insect casualty in the air, making use of their astute vision and highly controlled flying. The mating system of dragonflies is complex, and they are among the few insect groups that have a arrangement of indirect sperm transfer forth with sperm storage, delayed fertilization, and sperm contest.[34]

Adult males vigorously defend territories near water; these areas provide suitable habitat for the nymphs to develop, and for females to lay their eggs. Swarms of feeding adults aggregate to casualty on swarming casualty such as emerging flying ants or termites.[34]

Dragonflies as a group occupy a considerable multifariousness of habitats, but many species, and some families, accept their own specific ecology requirements.[35] Some species prefer flowing waters, while others prefer standing water. For example, the Gomphidae (clubtails) alive in running water, and the Libellulidae (skimmers) alive in nevertheless h2o.[35] Some species live in temporary water pools and are capable of tolerating changes in water level, desiccation, and the resulting variations in temperature, but some genera such as Sympetrum (darters) have eggs and nymphs that tin resist drought and are stimulated to grow rapidly in warm, shallow pools, besides oft benefiting from the absence of predators in that location.[35] Vegetation and its characteristics including submerged, floating, emergent, or waterside are likewise important. Adults may require emergent or waterside plants to use as perches; others may need specific submerged or floating plants on which to lay eggs. Requirements may be highly specific, equally in Aeshna viridis (green hawker), which lives in swamps with the water-soldier, Stratiotes aloides.[35] The chemical science of the h2o, including its trophic status (degree of enrichment with nutrients) and pH can besides impact its use by dragonflies. Nearly species demand moderate conditions, not besides eutrophic, not too acidic;[35] a few species such as Sympetrum danae (black darter) and Libellula quadrimaculata (four-spotted chaser) prefer acidic waters such as peat bogs,[36] while others such equally Libellula fulva (scarce attorney) need boring-moving, eutrophic waters with reeds or similar waterside plants.[37] [38]

Behaviour [edit]

Many dragonflies, particularly males, are territorial. Some defend a territory against others of their own species, some against other species of dragonfly and a few against insects in unrelated groups. A item perch may give a dragonfly a adept view over an insect-rich feeding ground; males of many species such as the Pachydiplax longipennis (blue dasher) jostle other dragonflies to maintain the correct to alight at that place.[39] Defending a breeding territory is common among male dragonflies, specially in species that congregate effectually ponds. The territory contains desirable features such as a sunlit stretch of shallow h2o, a special constitute species, or the preferred substrate for egg-laying. The territory may be pocket-sized or large, depending on its quality, the time of 24-hour interval, and the number of competitors, and may be held for a few minutes or several hours. Dragonflies including Tramea lacerata (blackness saddlebags) may notice landmarks that assist in defining the boundaries of the territory. Landmarks may reduce the costs of territory establishment, or might serve equally a spatial reference.[40] Some dragonflies signal ownership with striking colours on the face, belly, legs, or wings. The Plathemis lydia (common whitetail) dashes towards an intruder property its white abdomen aloft similar a flag. Other dragonflies engage in aerial dogfights or high-speed chases. A female must mate with the territory holder before laying her eggs.[39] There is likewise disharmonize between the males and females. Females may sometimes exist harassed past males to the extent that it affects their normal activities including foraging and in some dimorphic species females take evolved multiple forms with some forms actualization deceptively like males.[41] In some species females have evolved behavioural responses such as feigning death to escape the attention of males.[42] Similarly, pick of habitat by adult dragonflies is not random, and terrestrial habitat patches may be held for up to 3 months. A species tightly linked to its nascence site utilises a foraging area that is several orders of magnitude larger than the nascency site.[43]

Reproduction [edit]

Mating in dragonflies is a complex, precisely choreographed process. First, the male has to attract a female person to his territory, continually driving off rival males. When he is fix to mate, he transfers a packet of sperm from his primary genital opening on segment 9, near the cease of his abdomen, to his secondary ballocks on segments ii–3, near the base of operations of his abdomen. The male person then grasps the female by the head with the claspers at the end of his abdomen; the structure of the claspers varies betwixt species, and may help to prevent interspecific mating.[44] The pair flies in tandem with the male person in front, typically perching on a twig or constitute stem. The female then curls her abdomen downwards and forwards under her trunk to option up the sperm from the male person's secondary genitalia, while the male uses his "tail" claspers to grip the female person behind the head: this distinctive posture is called the "heart" or "bike";[34] [45] the pair may also exist described as existence "in cop".[46]

Egg-laying (ovipositing) involves not only the female darting over floating or waterside vegetation to deposit eggs on a suitable substrate, but as well the male person hovering above her or continuing to clasp her and flying in tandem. The male person attempts to prevent rivals from removing his sperm and inserting their own,[47] something fabricated possible by delayed fertilisation[34] [45] and driven by sexual selection.[44] If successful, a rival male uses his penis to compress or scrape out the sperm inserted previously; this activeness takes upwards much of the time that a copulating pair remains in the centre posture.[48] Flying in tandem has the reward that less effort is needed by the female for flight and more than can be expended on egg-laying, and when the female submerges to deposit eggs, the male may assistance to pull her out of the h2o.[47]

Egg-laying takes two dissimilar forms depending on the species. The female in some families (Aeshnidae, Petaluridae) has a sharp-edged ovipositor with which she slits open a stem or leaf of a institute on or almost the water, so she can push button her eggs inside. In other families such as clubtails (Gomphidae), cruisers (Macromiidae), emeralds (Corduliidae), and skimmers (Libellulidae), the female person lays eggs by tapping the surface of the water repeatedly with her belly, by shaking the eggs out of her abdomen as she flies along, or past placing the eggs on vegetation.[48] In a few species, the eggs are laid on emergent plants above the water, and development is delayed until these have withered and become immersed.[30]

Life cycle [edit]

Illustration of a naiad with mask extended

Dragonflies are hemimetabolous insects; they do non have a pupal phase and undergo an incomplete metamorphosis with a serial of nymphal stages from which the adult emerges.[49] Eggs laid within found tissues are ordinarily shaped like grains of rice, while other eggs are the size of a pinhead, ellipsoidal, or most spherical. A clutch may have every bit many as 1500 eggs, and they take about a calendar week to hatch into aquatic nymphs or naiads which moult betwixt 6 and fifteen times (depending on species) as they grow.[9] Most of a dragonfly'southward life is spent as a nymph, below the h2o's surface. The nymph extends its hinged labium (a toothed mouthpart similar to a lower mandible, which is sometimes termed as a "mask" as it is normally folded and held before the face) that can extend forward and retract rapidly to capture prey such every bit mosquito larvae, tadpoles, and minor fish.[49] They exhale through gills in their rectum, and can speedily propel themselves past suddenly expelling water through the anus.[50] Some naiads, such every bit the subsequently stages of Antipodophlebia asthenes, chase on land.[51]

The nymph stage of dragonflies lasts up to 5 years in large species, and betwixt 2 months and three years in smaller species. When the naiad is fix to metamorphose into an adult, it stops feeding and makes its way to the surface, generally at night. Information technology remains stationary with its head out of the water, while its respiration organisation adapts to animate air, then climbs upwards a reed or other emergent institute, and moults (ecdysis). Anchoring itself firmly in a vertical position with its claws, its exoskeleton begins to split at a weak spot behind the head. The adult dragonfly crawls out of its nymph exoskeleton, the exuvia, arching backwards when all but the tip of its belly is free, to allow its exoskeleton to harden. Crimper back upwards, information technology completes its emergence, swallowing air, which plumps out its trunk, and pumping haemolymph into its wings, which causes them to expand to their full extent.[52]

Dragonflies in temperate areas tin can be categorized into two groups, an early group and a later 1. In any one area, individuals of a particular "spring species" emerge inside a few days of each other. The springtime darner (Basiaeschna janata), for example, is of a sudden very common in the jump, but disappears a few weeks after and is not seen again until the following twelvemonth. By contrast, a "summer species" emerges over a menstruum of weeks or months, later in the year. They may be seen on the fly for several months, but this may represent a whole series of individuals, with new adults hatching out equally earlier ones complete their lifespans.[53]

Sex activity ratios [edit]

The sex ratio of male to female dragonflies varies both temporally and spatially. Adult dragonflies take a high male person-biased ratio at breeding habitats. The male-bias ratio has contributed partially to the females using different habitats to avoid male harassment. As seen in Hine'due south emerald dragonfly (Somatochlora hineana), male populations use wetland habitats, while females utilize dry out meadows and marginal breeding habitats, just migrating to the wetlands to lay their eggs or to observe mating partners. Unwanted mating is energetically costly for females because information technology affects the amount of fourth dimension that they are able to spend foraging.[54]

Brown hawker, Aeshna grandis in flight: The hindwings are virtually 90° out of phase with the forewings at this instant, suggesting fast flight.

Flight [edit]

Dragonflies are powerful and active fliers, capable of migrating across the body of water, moving in any direction, and changing management of a sudden. In flight, the developed dragonfly can propel itself in half-dozen directions: upward, down, forwards, backward, to left and to right.[55] They take iv dissimilar styles of flight:[56] A number of flying modes are used that include counter-stroking, with forewings chirapsia 180° out of phase with the hindwings, is used for hovering and slow flight. This fashion is efficient and generates a large amount of lift; phased-stroking, with the hindwings beating 90° ahead of the forewings, is used for fast flight. This style creates more thrust, but less elevator than counter-stroking; synchronised-stroking, with forewings and hindwings chirapsia together, is used when irresolute direction rapidly, every bit it maximises thrust; and gliding, with the wings held out, is used in 3 situations: complimentary gliding, for a few seconds in betwixt bursts of powered flying; gliding in the updraft at the crest of a hill, effectively hovering by falling at the same speed as the updraft; and in certain dragonflies such every bit darters, when "in cop" with a male, the female sometimes simply glides while the male pulls the pair along past chirapsia his wings.[56]

Southern hawker, Aeshna cyanea: its wings at this instant are synchronised for agile flying.

The wings are powered directly, unlike almost families of insects, with the flying muscles fastened to the wing bases. Dragonflies accept a high power/weight ratio, and have been documented accelerating at 4 G linearly and nine G in sharp turns while pursuing prey.[56]

Dragonflies generate elevator in at least four ways at dissimilar times, including classical lift similar an aircraft fly; supercritical elevator with the fly in a higher place the disquisitional angle, generating high elevator and using very short strokes to avoid stalling; and creating and shedding vortices. Some families appear to use special mechanisms, as for instance the Libellulidae which take off chop-chop, their wings beginning pointed far forward and twisted near vertically. Dragonfly wings behave highly dynamically during flight, flexing and twisting during each beat. Among the variables are fly curvature, length and speed of stroke, bending of assault, forward/dorsum position of wing, and phase relative to the other wings.[56]

Flight speed [edit]

Old and unreliable claims are fabricated that dragonflies such as the southern giant darner can wing upward to 97 km/h (60 mph).[57] Nevertheless, the greatest reliable flying speed records are for other types of insects.[58] In full general, large dragonflies like the hawkers have a maximum speed of 36–54 km/h (22–34 mph) with average cruising speed of about 16 km/h (9.9 mph).[59] Dragonflies can travel at 100 body-lengths per 2nd in forrad flying, and three lengths per second backwards.[22]

Movement camouflage [edit]

In high-speed territorial battles between male Australian emperors (Hemianax papuensis), the fighting dragonflies conform their flight paths to announced stationary to their rivals, minimizing the chance of being detected equally they arroyo.[a] [threescore] [61] To achieve the effect, the attacking dragonfly flies towards his rival, choosing his path to remain on a line between the rival and the start of his assault path. The assailant thus looms larger as he closes on the rival, but does non otherwise appear to move. Researchers found that 6 of 15 encounters involved motion camouflage.[62]

Temperature control [edit]

The flying muscles need to be kept at a suitable temperature for the dragonfly to exist able to wing. Existence cold-blooded, they tin can raise their temperature by basking in the sun. Early in the morning, they may cull to perch in a vertical position with the wings outstretched, while in the middle of the twenty-four hour period, a horizontal stance may exist called. Another method of warming up used past some larger dragonflies is wing-whirring, a rapid vibration of the wings that causes heat to be generated in the flight muscles. The green darner (Anax junius) is known for its long-altitude migrations, and often resorts to wing-whirring earlier dawn to enable it to brand an early start.[63]

Becoming too hot is another chance, and a sunny or shady position for perching can be selected according to the ambience temperature. Some species have dark patches on the wings which tin can provide shade for the body, and a few use the obelisk posture to avoid overheating. This behaviour involves doing a "handstand", perching with the torso raised and the belly pointing towards the sun, thus minimising the amount of solar radiation received. On a hot day, dragonflies sometimes adjust their body temperature by skimming over a water surface and briefly touching it, often three times in quick succession. This may besides aid to avoid desiccation.[63]

Feeding [edit]

Adult dragonflies hunt on the wing using their uncommonly astute eyesight and strong, agile flight.[45] They are nigh exclusively cannibal, eating a broad variety of insects ranging from small midges and mosquitoes to collywobbles, moths, damselflies, and smaller dragonflies.[59] A large casualty item is subdued by being bitten on the head and is carried by the legs to a perch. Here, the wings are discarded and the casualty usually ingested head outset.[64] A dragonfly may consume every bit much as a fifth of its torso weight in prey per twenty-four hour period.[65] Dragonflies are also some of the insect world's most efficient hunters, catching upwards to 95% of the prey they pursue.[66]

The nymphs are voracious predators, eating most living things that are smaller than they are. Their staple diet is by and large bloodworms and other insect larvae, but they also feed on tadpoles and small fish.[59] A few species, peculiarly those that alive in temporary waters, are likely to get out the water to feed. Nymphs of Cordulegaster bidentata sometimes hunt small arthropods on the ground at dark, while some species in the Anax genus take even been observed leaping out of the h2o to set on and impale full-grown tree frogs.[ix] [67]

Eyesight [edit]

Dragonfly vision is thought to be similar slow motion for humans. Dragonflies see faster than we do; they meet around 200 images per second.[68] A dragonfly tin can run across in 360 degrees, and most 80 per centum of the insect's brain is dedicated to its sight.[69]

Predators [edit]

Although dragonflies are swift and agile fliers, some predators are fast enough to catch them. These include falcons such every bit the American kestrel, the merlin,[lxx] and the hobby;[71] nighthawks, swifts, flycatchers and swallows also take some adults; some species of wasps, too, casualty on dragonflies, using them to provision their nests, laying an egg on each captured insect. In the water, various species of ducks and herons eat dragonfly nymphs[70] and they are besides preyed on past newts, frogs, fish, and water spiders.[72] Amur falcons, which drift over the Indian Bounding main at a flow that coincides with the migration of the globe skimmer dragonfly, Pantala flavescens, may really be feeding on them while on the wing.[73]

Parasites [edit]

Dragonflies are affected past iii major groups of parasites: h2o mites, gregarine protozoa, and trematode flatworms (flukes). Water mites, Hydracarina, tin impale smaller dragonfly nymphs, and may also be seen on adults.[74] Gregarines infect the gut and may crusade blockage and secondary infection.[75] Trematodes are parasites of vertebrates such every bit frogs, with complex life cycles oft involving a period as a stage chosen a cercaria in a secondary host, a snail. Dragonfly nymphs may swallow cercariae, or these may tunnel through a nymph's body wall; they then enter the gut and form a cyst or metacercaria, which remains in the nymph for the whole of its development. If the nymph is eaten past a frog, the amphibian becomes infected by the adult or fluke stage of the trematode.[76]

Dragonflies and humans [edit]

Conservation [edit]

Nigh odonatologists live in temperate areas and the dragonflies of North America and Europe have been the subject field of much research. Notwithstanding, the majority of species alive in tropical areas and have been trivial studied. With the destruction of rainforest habitats, many of these species are in danger of condign extinct before they have fifty-fifty been named. The greatest crusade of pass up is forest clearance with the consequent drying upwards of streams and pools which become clogged with silt. The damming of rivers for hydroelectric schemes and the drainage of low-lying land has reduced suitable habitat, as has pollution and the introduction of conflicting species.[77]

In 1997, the International Wedlock for Conservation of Nature gear up a status survey and conservation action plan for dragonflies. This proposes the establishment of protected areas around the earth and the management of these areas to provide suitable habitat for dragonflies. Outside these areas, encouragement should be given to modify forestry, agronomical, and industrial practices to enhance conservation. At the same time, more inquiry into dragonflies needs to be done, consideration should be given to pollution control and the public should be educated nigh the importance of biodiversity.[77]

Habitat degradation has reduced dragonfly populations beyond the world, for example in Japan.[78] Over 60% of Nihon's wetlands were lost in the 20th century, then its dragonflies at present depend largely on rice fields, ponds, and creeks. Dragonflies feed on pest insects in rice, acting as a natural pest control.[79] [80] Dragonflies are steadily failing in Africa, and correspond a conservation priority.[81]

The dragonfly's long lifespan and low population density makes it vulnerable to disturbance, such equally from collisions with vehicles on roads congenital near wetlands. Species that fly depression and ho-hum may exist most at risk.[82]

Dragonflies are attracted to shiny surfaces that produce polarization which they can error for water, and they have been known to aggregate shut to polished gravestones, solar panels, automobiles, and other such structures on which they endeavour to lay eggs. These can have a local impact on dragonfly populations; methods of reducing the attractiveness of structures such every bit solar panels are nether experimentation.[83] [84]

In culture [edit]

A blue-glazed faience dragonfly amulet was establish by Flinders Petrie at Lahun, from the Tardily Center Kingdom of aboriginal Egypt.[85]

Many Native American tribes consider dragonflies to exist medicine animals that had special powers. For example, the southwestern tribes, including the Pueblo, Hopi, and Zuni, associated dragonflies with transformation. They referred to dragonflies as "ophidian doctors" because they believed dragonflies followed snakes into the ground and healed them if they were injured.[86] For the Navajo, dragonflies symbolize pure water. Often stylized in a double-barred cantankerous design, dragonflies are a common motif in Zuni pottery, as well every bit Hopi rock art and Pueblo necklaces.[87] : 20–26

As a seasonal symbol in Japan, dragonflies are associated with flavor of autumn.[88] In Nihon, they are symbols of rebirth, courage, strength, and happiness. They are likewise depicted frequently in Japanese art and literature, peculiarly haiku poetry. Japanese children catch large dragonflies as a game, using a hair with a small pebble tied to each end, which they throw into the air. The dragonfly mistakes the pebbles for prey, gets tangled in the hair, and is dragged to the ground by the weight.[87] : 38

In Chinese civilization, dragonflies symbolize both change and instability. They are also symbols in the Chinese practices of Feng Shui, where placements of dragonfly statues and artwork in parts of a home or role are believed to bring new insights and positive changes.[89]

In both Mainland china and Nippon, dragonflies accept been used in traditional medicine. In Indonesia, adult dragonflies are caught on poles made pasty with birdlime, then fried in oil as a delicacy.[90]

Images of dragonflies are common in Art Nouveau, particularly in jewellery designs.[91] They have also been used as a decorative motif on fabrics and home furnishings.[92] Douglas, a British motorbike manufacturer based in Bristol, named its innovatively designed postwar 350-cc flat-twin model the Dragonfly.[93]

Among the classical names of Japan are Akitsukuni (秋津国), Akitsushima (秋津島), Toyo-akitsushima (豊秋津島). Akitsu is an onetime word for dragonfly, and then ane estimation of Akitsushima is "Dragonfly Island".[94] This is attributed to a legend in which Nippon's mythical founder, Emperor Jimmu, was bitten past a musquito, which was so eaten by a dragonfly.[95] [96]

In Europe, dragonflies have often been seen as sinister. Some English language colloquial names, such as "horse-stinger",[97] "devil's darning needle", and "ear cutter", link them with evil or injury.[98] Swedish sociology holds that the devil uses dragonflies to counterbalance people's souls.[87] : 25–27 The Norwegian name for dragonflies is Øyenstikker ("heart-poker"), and in Portugal, they are sometimes called tira-olhos ("eyes-snatcher"). They are oftentimes associated with snakes, every bit in the Welsh name gwas-y-neidr, "adder's servant".[98] The Southern United States terms "snake physician" and "snake feeder" refer to a folk conventionalities that dragonflies catch insects for snakes or follow snakes around and stitch them back together if they are injured.[99] [100] Interestingly, the Hungarian name for dragonfly is szitakötő ("sieve-knitter").

The watercolourist Moses Harris (1731–1785), known for his The Aurelian or natural history of English language insects (1766), published in 1780, the showtime scientific descriptions of several Odonata including the banded demoiselle, Calopteryx splendens. He was the first English creative person to make illustrations of dragonflies accurate enough to be identified to species (Aeshna grandis at meridian left of plate illustrated), though his crude drawing of a nymph (at lower left) with the mask extended appears to be plagiarised.[b] [101]

More than recently, dragonfly watching has become pop in America equally some birdwatchers seek new groups to observe.[102]

In heraldry, similar other winged insects, the dragonfly is typically depicted tergiant (with its back facing the viewer), with its caput to chief.[103]

  • Dragonfly symbol on a Hopi bowl from Sikyátki, Arizona, c. 1400–1625

  • Tiffany dragonfly pendant lamp, designed c. 1903

  • Japanese tsuba with a dragonfly, 1931: Shibuichi with gold and silvery, Walters Art Museum

In poetry and literature [edit]

Lafcadio Hearn wrote in his 1901 book A Japanese Miscellany that Japanese poets had created dragonfly haiku "almost as numerous as are the dragonflies themselves in the early autumn."[104] The poet Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694) wrote haiku such as "Crimson pepper pod / add two pairs of wings, and wait / darting dragonfly", relating the autumn season to the dragonfly.[105] Hori Bakusui (1718–1783) similarly wrote "Dyed he is with the / Colour of autumnal days, / O scarlet dragonfly."[104]

The poet Lord Tennyson, described a dragonfly splitting its quondam skin and emerging shining metallic blue like "sapphire mail" in his 1842 poem "The 2 Voices", with the lines "An inner impulse rent the veil / Of his old husk: from caput to tail / Came out articulate plates of sapphire postal service."[106]

The novelist H. E. Bates described the rapid, agile flight of dragonflies in his 1937 nonfiction book[107] Down the River:[108]

I saw, once, an endless procession, just over an area of water-lilies, of small sapphire dragonflies, a continuous play of blueish gauze over the snowy flowers above the sun-glassy water. It was all bars, in true dragonfly fashion, to one minor space. It was a continuous turning and returning, an endless darting, poising, hitting and hovering, so swift that information technology was often lost in sunlight.[109]

In engineering [edit]

A dragonfly has been genetically modified with light-sensitive "steering neurons" in its nerve cord to create a cyborg-like "DragonflEye". The neurons contain genes similar those in the center to make them sensitive to lite. Miniature sensors, a computer chip and a solar panel were fitted in a "backpack" over the insect'due south thorax in forepart of its wings. Light is sent downwardly flexible light-pipes named optrodes[c] from the backpack into the nervus cord to give steering commands to the insect. The consequence is a "micro-aerial vehicle that's smaller, lighter and stealthier than anything else that'due south manmade".[110] [111]

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ This is not to say that other species may not use the same technique, only that this species has been studied.
  2. ^ Reviewing his artwork, the odonatologists Albert Orr and Matti Hämäläinen comment that his drawing of a 'large brown' (Aeshna grandis, top left of paradigm) was "superb", while the "perfectly natural colours of the eyes signal that Harris had examined living individuals of these aeshnids and either coloured the printed copper plates himself or supervised the colourists." However, they consider the nymph on the same plate far less skillful, "a very potent dorso-lateral view of an aeshnid larva with mask extended. No try has been made to draw the eyes, antennae or hinge on the mask or labial palps, all inconceivable omissions for an creative person of Harris' talent had he really examined a specimen", and they propose he copied it from August Johann Rösel von Rosenhof.[101]
  3. ^ Optrode is a portmanteau of "optical electrode".

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Sources [edit]

  • Berger, Cynthia (2004). Dragonflies . Stackpole Books. p. 2. ISBN978-0-8117-2971-0.
  • Corbet, Phillip S. (1999). Dragonflies: Behavior and Ecology of Odonata. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Academy Press. pp. 559–561. ISBN978-0-8014-2592-9.
  • Dijkstra, Klaas-Douwe B. (2006). Field Guide to the Dragonflies of U.k. and Europe. British Wildlife Publishing. ISBN978-0-9531399-iv-1.
  • Meister, Cari (2001). Dragonflies . ABDO. p. 16. ISBN978-i-57765-461-2.
  • Powell, Dan (1999). A Guide to the Dragonflies of Corking Britain. Arlequin Press. ISBN978-i-900-15901-two.
  • Trueman, John W. H.; Rowe, Richard J. (2009). "Odonata". Tree of Life. Retrieved 25 February 2015.

External links [edit]

gatenbybegamseley.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragonfly

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